Counterfactuals thinking and stereotypes: The nonconformity effect

Past research has shown that counterfactual thinking (‘if only . . . ’) is related to judgements of\r\nresponsibility for negative events. It has also shown that behaviours deviating from the target’s own\r\nbehavioural standard (intrapersonal norm) are likely to trigger counterfactuals—the so-called\r\nexceptional-routine effect. In the present research, we demonstrate that behaviours deviating from a\r\nsocial category’s behavioural standard (social norm) are also likely to trigger counterfactuals—what\r\nmay be called the nonconformity effect. Two studies investigated counterfactual thinking regarding a\r\nrape case, classifying counterfactuals according to their conformity versus nonconformity to relevant\r\nsocial norms, and their focus on actions versus inactions. In Study 1, participants with higher\r\nendorsement of the rape victim stereotype generated more counterfactuals on the victim’s nonconforming\r\ninactions than did participants with lower stereotype endorsement. The presence of a\r\nnonconformity effect was confirmed in Study 2, where participants rated their agreement with\r\nexternally generated counterfactuals. Moreover, in Study 2, counterfactuals focused on the victim’s\r\nnon-conforming inactions predicted responsibility attribution to the victim through the mediating role\r\nof perceived avoidability of the event. Copyright # 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.